MONGOLIA

 

 

Official name                                                       :               Mongolia

 

National flag

                                                                                               

 

National emblem

 

                           

 

 

National anthem                                                 :               download

 

 

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT MONGOLIA

Mongolia is a land-locked country in Central Asia, situated between Russia and China. It has an area of 604.250 sq. ml (l.565.000 sq. km), i.e. nearly France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands and Belgium combined. The average altitude of the country is l.580 meters above sea level. Almost 90% of Mongolia is pasture, desert and mountains. l0% of the land is covered by forests. About l% of the land is sustainable for agriculture.

Mongolia has a sharply continental climate, with temperatures ranging between -5 and -22 F (-15 and -30 C) in winter and +50 and +80 F (+10 and +30 C) in summer. Winters are long and dry. The precipitation in summer seldom exceeds l5 inches (380 mm) in the plains and mountains and 5 inches (l25 mm) in the desert and gobi areas.

Mongolia is rich in mineral resources. Coal, iron, copper, fluorspar, gold, uranium and silver are being mined and exploited.

As of the end of l998 its population was 2 million 422 thousand. It is ethnically homogeneous. Khalkha mongols constitute more than 75% of the population. Other groups include Kazakhs (about 4% of the population). A small number of Russians and Chinese also permanently live in Mongolia.

Overall population density is about 4 persons per sq. mi (l.4 per sq. km). As of the end of l998, 49.8 thousand people were officially registered as unemployed, while actual unemployment rate is about 3 times higher. Infant mortality is 50.3 per 1.000 live births. Average life expectancy is 63.7 years. Per capita GNP is 340 U.S. dollars.

Mongolia is administratively divided into 21 aimags (provinces) and 334 soums (counties). The capital of Mongolia is Ulaanbaatar which has a population of about 600 thousand.

The main religion of the country is Lamaist Buddhism, which was introduced into Mongolia in the XVI century. During the communist period, the religion was suppressed, almost all of the 770 monasteries destroyed, while most of the clergy was physically annihilated. Since l990 Buddhism is reviving. Other religions are also being adopted.

The official language is Mongolian, which is a part of Uralo-Altaic language family. The Mongolian language is spoken not only in Mongolia proper. Its dialects are also spoken in Inner Mongolia (China), in the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia (both in Russia). Mongolia uses both traditional Uighur (vertical) and Cyrillic scripts.

Mongolia has a rich history. Its statehood is more than 2.200 years old. In l206 Genghis Khan united the Mongolian tribes and founded a unified Mongolian state. It is one of the few nations that represent the diminishing nomadic civilization with its specific way of life and traits. Waves of nomadic migrations and the formation of steppe empires on the Mongolian plains left their mark in history. Compared to the sedentary civilizations, the nomadic people try to live in harmony with the nature and preserve it. Besides its nomadic culture, Mongolia has successfully developed modern culture as well. The Mongolian literature is rich and epic in form.

THE STATE STRUCTURE OF MONGOLIA

Mongolia is a unitary state. The highest organ of State power is the State Great Hural ( parliament), which is vested with supreme legislative power. It is uni-cameral and consists of 76 members, elected by the citizens qualified to vote, on the basis of universal , free, direct suffrage by secret ballot for a term of four years. The last multiparty elections were held on 27 June 2004.  Election results: percent of vote by party - MPRP 48.78%, MDC 44.8%, independents 3.5%, Republican Party 1.5%, others 1.42%; seats by party - MPRP 36, MDC 34, others 4; note - following June 2004 election, two seats in dispute and unoccupied

The parliament has the exclusive competence to enact laws or make amendments to them, determine the basis of the domestic and foreign policies of the State, to pass a law recognizing the full powers of the President after his/her election and to relieve or remove the President, to appoint, replace or remove the Prime Minister, members of the Government, to define the State¡¯s financial, credit, tax and monetary policies, etc. The Chairman (Speaker) of the parliament is H.E. Danzangiin LUNDEEJANTSAN.  The parliament has 11 standing committees.

The President is the head of the State and the embodiment of the unity of the people. The President enjoys such prerogative rights as to veto, partially or wholly, laws and other decisions adopted by the parliament. The veto may be overridden by 2/3 vote of members present and voting.

The President proposes to the parliament the candidature of the Prime Minister in consultation with the majority party or parties in the parliament, proposes to the parliament to dissolve the Government. The President heads the National Security Council of Mongolia and is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. President Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR was elected in May 2005 for the term of office of 4 years.

The Government, headed by Prime Minister is the highest executive body of the State. It is called upon to organize and ensure nation-wide implementation of the Constitution and other laws, to promote efficient leadership of central State administrative bodies and direct activities of local administrations, elaborate guidelines for economic and social development of the State and organize their implementation, strengthen the country's defense capabilities and to ensure national security, etc. The present Cabinet consists of Prime Minister Sanjiin BAYAR.  

The National Security Council of Mongolia is the highest State consultative body which is called upon to elaborate and coordinate the activities aimed at ensuring national security. In its activities, the Council is guided by the National Security Concept of Mongolia, adopted by the parliament on 30 June, l994. According to this Concept, Mongolia's vital national interests are defined as: existence of the Mongolian people and their civilization, the country's independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, inviolability of State frontiers, relative economic independence, sustainable ecological development and national unity.

The members of the Council are the President (chairman), the Speaker of the parliament and the Prime Minister.

The judicial system consists of the Supreme Court, aimag and city courts, as well as soum, inter-soum and district courts. Judges are independent and subject only to law. The General Council of Courts has been established for the purpose of ensuring the independence of the judiciary. The Constitutional Court is an organ exercising supreme supervision over the implementation of the Constitution, making judgement on the violation of its provisions and resolving constitutional disputes. It consists of 9 members.

In aimags, the capital city, soums, districts, and other territorial divisions, the state power is exercised by the respective governors. Local self-governing bodies, besides making independent decisions on matters of socio-economic life of the respective territory, organizes the paticipation of the population in solving the problems of national scale and those of larger territorial divisions.

The Land

Mongolia is one of the few countries in the temperate belt of the northern hemisphere with its vast territory, perfect ecosystem and virgin land. Mongolia ranked as the seventh largest country in Asia for its territory, which covers an area of 1.564.100 sq. km, larger than the overall combined territory of the United Kingdom , France , Germany and Italy . It is one of the land-locked countries. Mongolia lies in 41¡Æ 35¡¯ N. Lat and between 87¡Æ 44¡¯ and 119¡Æ 56¡¯ E. Long in the north of Central Asia . Mongolia bordered to the north by Russia and to the east, south and west by China . Its total borderline is 8161.8 km long, 3485 km of which is with Russia and 4676.8 km is with China . Within Mongolia , the Mongol Altai Mountains occupy an extensive area of 2392 km from west to north. There is a distance of 1259 km between the Soyon mountain ranges in the Gobi in the south. The nearest body of water to Mongolia is the Yellow Sea , 700 km away in the east.

Geographical Features

Which are few Mongolia possesses a great range of natural ecosystems within its borders in the world. She is at the junction where the flora and fauna of Siberia are the very different species of the deserts and arid steppes of Central Asia . Largely unknown to the rest of the world until recent years, Mongolia¡¯s unique combination of diverse landscapes, unspoiled habitat, and rare wild plant and animal species has become the subject of growing international attention and conversation efforts. From the Gobi to the Central Asian steppe to the coniferous forests of Siberia ¡¯s taiga, Mongolia contains a great array of natural zones and associated flora and fauna. Mongolia divided into six basic natural zones, differing in climate, landscape, soil, flora and fauna.

High mountain zone Mongolia is a mountainous country. Though the high mountain zone, which includes the higher elevations of these ranges, makes up only about 5% of Mongolia ¡¯s territory, the country¡¯s average elevation is quite high, at 1580 meters above sea level. In the far western Altai, Khuiten Peak in the Tavan Bogd mountains reaches 4374 meters, the highest point in the country. Many of Mongolia ¡¯s mountain areas show signs of previous Ice Ages, with U-shaped valleys and boulders left behind by retreating glaciers. The climate in the high mountain zone is extremely cold and there is a short growing season. The zone located above tree line characterized by tundra, alpine-sedge meadows, highland swamps and lichen-covered boulder fields.

Taiga (forest) zone Mongolia ¡¯s taiga zone includes the southern edge of Siberia ¡¯s vast taiga forest, the largest continuous forest system on earth. This zone occurs only in northern Mongolia , where it found in the Khentii Mountains , in the mountainous terrain near Lake Khuvsgul , on the north and east sides of the Khangai Mountains and some parts of the Khan Khukhii range. The taiga zone, which covers about 5% of Mongolia, experiences more precipitation (300-to 400 mm annually) and lower temperatures than most of Mongolia, with cold, snowy winters and cool, rainy summers. In Mongolia , although affected by some mining and timber developments, the taiga remains largely undisturbed.

Mountain Forest Steppe zone In the mountain-forest steppe zone, the species of Siberia ¡¯s taiga meet those of the Central Asian steppe. The mountain steppe zone occurs in the lower elevations of the Khentii, the Khangai, the Mongolian Altai mountains, in the Orkhon and Selenge river basins, and in the Khyangan mountains. Mixed coniferous forest found on cooler, moister northern slopes, while steppe vegetation predominates on other slopes. The mountain, forest, steppe zones covers about 25% of Mongolia , and is one of the most heavily populated areas in Mongolia . Its pastures, wood, and water make it an important area for herder¡¯s and their livestock.

Steppe zone Steppe covers nearly the entire far eastern part of Mongolia, extending west in a narrowing band just south of the Khangai and Khan Khukhii mountains all the way to the Depression of the Great Lakes. Mongolia ¡¯s steppe lies in the eastern part of the vast plain that begins in Eastern Europe and reaches to the steppes of Manchuria . The steppe zone includes a distinctive group of flora and fauna. In the central and western areas of the country, the steppe provides many of the nation¡¯s most important grazing lands for domestic livestock. The steppe is vulnerable to impacts from overgrazing, agriculture, roads and other human activities.

Desert Steppe zone Desert steppe occupies a large band, more than 20% of Mongolia ¡¯s area, extending across the country between the steppe and desert zones. This zone includes the Depression of the Great Lakes , the Valley of the lakes, and most of the area between the Khangai and Altai mountain ranges, as well as the eastern Gobi area. The zone includes many low-lying areas, soils with saltpans, and small ponds. The climate is arid with frequent droughts and annual precipitation of 100-125 mm, and frequent strong winds and dust storms strongly influence the areas vegetation. Still, many of Mongolia ¡¯s nomadic herders occupy this zone.

Desert zone The Gobi is one of the world¡¯s great deserts, occupying much of southern Mongolia and northeastern China and composing the northern part of Central Asia ¡¯s deserts. Starkly beautiful, the expanses of the fabled Gobi are rugged and inhospitable. Vegetation is sparse here, and the zone displays a remarkable variety, from rocky mountain massifs to the flat pavement-like areas of the super-arid desert, from poplar-fringed oases to vast outwash plains and areas of sand dunes. These areas provide habitat for many of Mongolia ¡¯s threatened species, including the wild camel, Gobi bear, and wild ass. Climate is extreme. Precipitation may fall only once every two to three years, and averages less than 100 mm annually. Temperatures climb as high as 40¡Æ C in summer, and fall as low as -40¡ÆC in winter. During the spring and fall, dangerously strong winds buffet the area with dust storms and wind speeds up to 140 km/hour.

Highest mountains

• Nairamdal peak /Tavan Bogd mountain/ 4374 m
• Sukhbaatar peak/Munkhkhairkhan mountain/ 4208 m
• Tsast mountain/Altai mountain range/ 4204 m
• Tsast Bogd mountain/Sutai mountain range/ 4090 m
• Khatuu mountain /Siilkhem mountain range/ 4029 m
• Khukh serkh/Deluun mountain range/ 4019 m

The largest lakes

• Uvs 3350 sq. km
• Khuvsgul 2620 sq. km
• Khar Us 1852 sq. km
• Khyargas 1407 sq. km
• Buir 615 sq. km

The longest rivers

• Orkhon 1124 km
• Kherlen 1090 km
• Selenge 819 km
• Tuul 808 km
• Zavkhan 568 km

Climate

Mongolia has a sharply continental climate, with long, cold, dry winters and brief, mild, and relatively wet summers. When Arctic air masses dominate in mid-winter, temperatures average -20¡ÆC to -35¡ÆC. In the Uvs Lake basin in northwestern Mongolia , known as one of the coldest places in all of Asia , the lowest temperature ever recorded is -58¡ÆC. By contrast, summer time temperatures in the Gobi desert climb as high as 40¡ÆC. Annual precipitation ranges from 600 mm in the Khentii, Altai, and Khuvsgul mountains to less than 100 mm in the Gobi . In some parts of the Gobi , no precipitation may fall for several years in a row. Mongolia has the 4 seasons of the year. There are summer, autumn, winter and spring.

	JAN	FEB	MAR	APR	MAY	JUNE	JULY	AUG	SEP	OCT	NOV	DEC	YEAR
Average  temperature	-26,1	-21,7	-10,8	0,5	8,3	14,9	17,0	15,0	7,6	-1,7	-13,7	-24,0	-2,9
Humidity(%)	75	73	66	50	47	56	65	65	64	65	72	75	64
Precipitation (mm)	1,5	1,9	2,2	7,2	15,3	48,8	72,6	47,8	24,4	6,0	3,7	1,6	233,0

Spring

Spring comes after a severe winter, days become longer, and nights shorter. It is the time for snow to melt and for animals to come out from hibernation. All animals and livestock breed while the soil thaws in the warm spring weather. In Mongolia "Khansh neekh" means some animals, which hibernated, awoke from their sleep. It is very different to the Chinese one. Spring is the prosperous season of the year when everybody is calm and relaxed; grass turns green, anemones grow up and nature covered with its green dress. Beginning in March spring usually lasts about 60 days although it can be as long as 70 days or as short as 45 days in some areas of the country. For people and livestock, it is also a harsh season of the driest and the most windy days although it gets warm in spring; livestock breed and gain their weight; and grass becomes green.

Summer

Summer is the warmest season in Mongolia . Generally, precipitation is higher in summer than any time of the year. Rivers and streams are at their fullest in summer. It is the time when pasture, grass and crops grow and livestock gain weight and fat. It is the most pleasant time with abundant dairy products and there are many feasts and holidays of happy people. In Mongolia , summer lasts about 110 days from the end of May until September. July is the warmest month of summer, it is 15¡Æ, and 20¡Æ C in mountainous areas of Khangai region, 20¡Æ and 25¡Æ C in the steppes and the highest temperature is between 32¡Æ and 35¡Æ C in Khangai and 40¡Æ and 41¡Æ C in Gobi . Sometimes it reaches 50¡Æ C in Gobi .

Autumn

Autumn in Mongolia is the transition period from summer to winter and it has its own features and signs. There is less rainfall in autumn. Gradually it gets cooler and vegetables and grains harvested at this time. Pasture and forests become yellow. Flies die and livestock is fat and woolly in preparation for the winter. Autumn is an important season in Mongolia in order to prepare for winter; harvesting the crops, vegetables and fodder; getting ready their cattle barns and sheds; preparing firewood and warming up their homes and so on. Autumn lasts about 60 days from the beginning of September until the early November. In some years, there are many long and sunny days in autumn.

Winter

In Mongolia , winter is the most severe, the coldest and longest season. All rivers, lakes, streams and ponds freeze in winter. It snows throughout the country, but not heavily. After making all the necessary preparations for a long winter, herdsmen stay at their winter camps. Winter starts early in November and lasts about 110 days until March. Sometimes it snows in September and November, but the heavy snow usually occurs at the beginning of November. January is the coldest winter month in Mongolia and the mean temperature is -35¡ÆC in Khangai mountain regions, -15¡ÆC in Gobi and -20¡ÆC and -25¡ÆC in the other parts of the country. However, -10¡ÆC in Europe means -20¡ÆC in Mongolia .

Flora and Fauna

Mongolia ¡¯s diverse and distinctive vegetation includes an important part of Asia ¡¯s plant life. Species representative of Siberia ¡¯s coniferous taiga forest, Central Asia ¡¯s steppe and desert, and the Altai and Sayan mountains all occur here. Steppe plants from Kazakhstan grow beside Manchurian steppe flowers. More than 3000 species of vascular plants, 927 lichens, 437 mosses, 875 fungi, and numerous algae has been recorded. Many other species, however, remains classified. Mongolia ¡¯s flora includes almost 150 endemic plants and nearly 100 relic species. Over 100 plant species listed in the Mongolian Red book as rare or endangered. Like its vegetation, Mongolia ¡¯s fauna represents a mixture of species from the northern taiga of Siberia , the steppe, and the deserts of Central Asia . Fauna includes 136 species of mammals, 436 birds, 8 amphibians, 22 reptiles, 75 fish, and numerous invertebrates. Species endemic to Central Asia founded primarily in the Gobi and desert steppe including the Mongolian subspecies of the Saiga antelope tatarica mongolica, four species of jerboa and a vole that are endemic to Central Asia. The birds include the Altai snowcock Tetraogallus altaica and Kozlov¡¯s accentor Prunella kozlovi.Reptiles endemic to Central Asia includes eight species. Endemic fish include the Altai Osman Oreoloeuciscus potanini and the Mongolian grayling Thymallus brevirostris. Numerous globally threatened and endangered species occur in Mongolia.

Water Reserves

The common natural resource is surface and underground water. The total annual water reservoir of Mongolia is 34cub.km and most of it is fresh water. In Mongolia , there are many possibilities of using the water resource properly. Almost 51% of the overall reserves belong to the Arctic Ocean , 12% to the Pacific Ocean basin, and 37% to the Central Asian basin, which has no outlet. All rivers in Mongolia are roughly 65.000 km long and many of them have clear water. They are mostly mountain rivers with a steady current. The possible total reserve is Mongolia is 6 billion cub.m. 670 million cub.m water is being used now for industry and agriculture in about 300 cities and towns. There are about 3800 big rivers and streams in Mongolia , which have steady current, and their total length is 667.000 km. Many countries in the world are lacking fresh water and the cost of water is increasing at the world market. Besides supplying its own domestic need for fresh water, Mongolia can also export it to foreign countries.

Forest

Forests, which include 140 species of wood and scrubs, cover about 14 million hectares of land constituting nearly 9% of the overall territory. The total forest resources are more than 1.2 billion cub.m. It is estimated that between five and 7 million cub.m of wood grow every year. Forests are mostly in the northern parts of the country, namely in Khuvsgul, Selenge, Bulgan, Khentii and Arkhangai aimags. Over 84% of forest belongs to the territories of these aimags. About 62% of forests is coniferous and 38% leaf bearing. Mongolia has the highest forest resources per person in the world.

People- Mongolia's Population and Ethnic Groups

Population. In the Conception for development of Mongolia , it is stated that citizens of Mongolia with high levels of creative force, knowledge, education, spiritual and professional expertise are the source of the development of Mongolia .

For the time being the population of Mongolia stands at 2.5 million, which as against that recorded in the 8th Bogd Khan¡¯s Mongolia, i.e. in 1918, has risen as much as 3.7 fold over a more than 80-year period.

The population density of Mongolia is 1.5 persons per square km, making Mongolia one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world.

The natural growth rate per 1000 of the population made up 3.6 per cent in 1980 and in 2000 was reportedly 1.4. In connection with such a drop in the population growth rates, the President of Mongolia issued a resolution on policies to be pursued in this sphere. The resolution underlined that it would be appropriate to carry out a policy aimed at preventing further decline in the population¡¯s annual average growth rates, securing the purity of the Mongolians¡¯ gene pool. For this purpose, the traditions of keeping genealogical records were reinstated to be kept by every household and ancestry and family records of citizens are being carried out with a view to ensuring favorable social, economic, scientific, cultural, natural and psychological environs for Mongolia ¡¯s population growth and safeguarding the purity of the Mongolians¡¯ gene pool.

Ethnic groups. More than 90 per cent of the country¡¯s population constitutes Mongolian nationalities. The core Mongolian nationality, being Khalkha distributed all along the territory of the country, makes up 80 per cent of its population. The other major group, the Kazakhs, makes up about 6 percent of the population and lives in western Mongolia , mainly in Bayan-Ulgii aimag. Many Kazakhs immigrated to Kazakhstan in the early 1990s, but many have since returned.

As for the linguistic reference of the Mongolian population, it relates to the Mongolian group of the Altaic family except for Kazakhs. This group is composed of Khalkh, Durvud, Buryad, Bayad, Uriankhai, Zakhchin, Darkhad, Torguud, Uuld, Myangad, Barga and Uzemchin dialects.

The Mongolian group stemmed from the ancient Mongolian people and Mongolian tribes being parts of the Mongol Empire founded in 1206 by Chinggis Khan. The ancient Mongolian tribes comprised the medieval Aimag (principality) of Mongolian tribes. The current ¡°aimag¡± of Mongolia means its administrative and territorial unit. That is why the dominant tribes and nationalities that used to comprise the ancient Mongolian group are now spread along all the aimags (provinces) of Mongolia . However, the traditional settlement patterns of the dominant tribes and nationalities of the ancient Mongolian principality still can be easily traced back even now.

LANGUAGE

Mongolian belongs to the Altaic family of languages. It originated from the ancient Mongolians dialect and now Mongolian includes the languages of north Mongolia or vowel harmony, such as central Mongolian, Buryat, Kalmyk, Afganistan Mogol and the languages of south Mongolia or languages without rules of vowel harmony, such as Daguur, Dunsyan (Santo), Mongor and Bayaoni. The development of Mongolian literary language is divided into three stages. The early stage of its history lasted from unknown times until about the fifth century A. D. The second stage started in the fifth century. The third stage began in the 1940s, when the grammar structures of the literary Mongolian developed. This stage is continuing until now.

Writing

It is believed that writing was invented about 5000 years ago, writing on Mongolian¡¯s archaeological finds, and ancient monuments can be traced back 2000 years. Speakers of Mongolian had been using many scripts throughout their history. Tabgach people had their own script in 425 A. D. that did not use vowels but letters that wrote syllables. Later, Kitans had two kinds of script "Big" and "Small" and the latter was used to write vowels. It was invented in 925 A. D. by Tela who got the idea from Uighur script. The Mongolian script or Uighur script has played an important role in the history of Mongolian culture. The time when it was invented is still unknown. Some linguists assume that it was in use earlier as it reflects Mongolian phonetics.

The alphabet of the Mongolian alphabet consists of 14 basic that represent 5 vowels and 22 consonants. One peculiarity of the Old Mongolian script is that each letter has different forms at initial, medial and final positions of a word. The main grammar rule is the final letter rule by which 11 consonants (N, B, G, T, L, R, S, D, I, V, NG) end a closed syllable. The Old Mongolian script is very suitable to dialects that are different from each other. "Durvuljin usug" alphabet was invented by Pagva Lama in 1269 although it was no longer used at the decline of Mongol Empire and was only used for decoration and other purposes. "Tod usug" - the Oirat alphabet, which was invented by Zaya Pandita in 1618 and ¡°Soyombo¡± alphabet by Zanabazar in 1686, could not be used commonly. After the revolution Mongolians started to use the 35 letters of the Mongolian Cyrillic script which are those of the Russian alphabet plus two additional ones (¬à and ¬å ) to represent o and u. Besides corresponding a spelling with a pronunciation and reducing the different spellings of one word, it helped a lot to make up a modem grammar of literal Mongolian.

Recently there are many comments and initiatives to have the national script of Mongolia as an official script and to use the Latin alphabet throughout the country.

 

TRAVEL ADVISORY

 

PASSPORTS AND VISA
Every tourist must be in possession of a full valid passport, entry and exit visa. You may take visa from Mongolian Embassy where you need two photos, valid passport and authorisation from tour operators.

Visa for individual travellers:
General requirements for all types of Mongolian visas are:

• One filled- in visa application form
• Statement of travel dates
• A valid passport
• One recent passport size photograph
• Self- addressed and pre-paid envelope are required in case visa applied by post

Visas, except transit visas are issued by the embassy's organization concerned. The normal time required for a visa to be processed is one week, for a transit visa 48 hours without any authorizations.

 

 

CUSTOMS
Every tourist must complete a customs declaration form which should be retained until departure. This allows free import and re-export of articles intended for personal use for duration of stay. It is prohibited to import and export:

• guns, weapons and ammunition without special etc. brought to Mongolia. Foreign currency must be permission
• explosive items
• radioactive substance
• opium, hashish and other narcotics
• pornographic publications
• publications, records, films, palaeontological and archeological findings, collection of various plants and their seeds, birds, wild and domestic animals, raw skins and hides and furs without permission of appropriate Mongolian authorities.

MEDICAL SERVICES
Medical services are available everywhere. All necessary expenses connected with medical treatment are to be paid by patient.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
The standard voltage in Mongolia is 220 volts/50 Hz. Sockets require a European two-pin type plug or adaptor.

CURRENCY
There is no limit on foreign currency, traveller's cheques, etc. brought to Mongolia. Foreign currency must be registered at Mongolian customs. The Banks have a network of branch and exchanging bureau at most hotels. There are duty free shops where convertible currencies are accepted. In these a wide range of goods may be bought for foreign currency at favourable prices - typical Mongolian souvenirs, furs, cashmere garments, camel wool blankets, national costumes, horns, etc.ln all other local shops only local currency is used. It is advisable to keep receipts as these may be required at customs on departure. Diners Club, American Express and Visa Card are accepted for payment at Juulchin office, duty free shops and hotels.

ACCOMODATION
Rooms of deluxe, semi-deluxe, first class and tourist categaries are available at the hotels in Ulaanbaatar and Mongolian Ger at the tourist camp.

TRANSPORTATION

• transfer to and from airport, railway station and hotels
• all transfers in tourist camps
• motorcoach for group travellers
• car for individual travellers
• jeep, camel, horses for hunters, trekkers and special interest travellers

ENTERTAINMENTS
The world classic and national opera, ballet, folk concert and circus are main evening entertainments offered to tourists. Visits to evening entertainments is possible during the weekends.

SHOPPING
Time is allowed for shopping in Ulaanbaatar and at the tourist camps. There are many duty free shops where convertible currencies are accepted. A wide range of goods may be bought for foreign currency at favourable prices - typical Monpolia souvenirs, wines, furs, garments in cashmere, camel woll blankets, national cost- umes, boots, jewellery, carpets, books records, horns, etc. In all other local shops local currency must be used. Arranging a visit to Mongolia will prove to be one of the most unusual and interesting experiences of your lifetime. Remote as it is, and guarding carefully the age-old customs and cultures. Mongolia remains one of the foremost and progressive people in Ihe world. And, like most countries where you are the foreigner, you will find those two litlle things called "politeness and consideration" will go a long way in Ihe land of Chingis Khaan.

ECONOMY

 

High international prices for export commodities and another mild winter induced further rapid economic growth in 2007. Inflation climbed, driven mainly by food prices, and is likely to be in double digits this year. Fast-paced economic growth is set to continue in the next couple of years, supported by an expansionary fiscal policy. The competing pressures to distribute gains from mining, and to control inflation and encourage investment elsewhere in the economy, will have to be reconciled.

 

Economic performance

 

Solid contributions from all sectors underpinned GDP growth of 9.9% in 2007, above the 2003–2006 average of 8.7%. Agriculture, which supports nearly half the population, had a strong year, expanding by 15.8% and contributing 3.7 percentage points to GDP growth (Figure 3.12.1). The livestock herd—mainly goats, sheep, and cattle—grew by 15% to about 40 million in response to higher cashmere prices, rising domestic demand for meat and other animal products, and good weather. However, this second straight year of large increase raises questions about the sustainability of livestock numbers at this level, particularly as goats, the most environmentally damaging of the three, now account for almost half the total number.

Services grew by nearly 9% and accounted for 3.6 percentage points of overall growth. Major contributors were construction, transport, trade, and tourism. Despite higher global prices for copper, gold, and coal and continued foreign investment in minerals, mining output rose only marginally, and copper concentrate by just 1.4%. Industry as a whole expanded by 7.1% and contributed 2.5 percentage points to growth.

Mining output was held back partly by uncertainty surrounding the terms of exploitation of some substantial mineral deposits. Government decisions are awaited, with regard among other things to the state¡¯s participation, particularly in the large Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit to which rights are jointly owned by two foreign companies. The

major issues center on the size and terms of the government stake in the deposit, the tax regime, and management. The uncertainty prompted some mining companies to reconsider investments for increasing production at existing mines and developing new resources.

A windfall tax imposed in 2006 on copper and gold exports beyond certain price thresholds has also damped expansion of mining. The value of recorded gold exports fell in 2007 despite substantially higher global

prices, apparently a result of gold smuggling to evade the windfall tax. Nevertheless, mining continued to dominate exports last year, accounting for some two thirds of the total. Robust economic growth and higher costs of imported food and oil